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Sophia Rosenfeld is the Walter H. Annenberg Professor of History and Chair of the History Department at the University of Pennsylvania. Her previous books include the award-winning title Common Sense: A Political History. Her writing has appeared in scholarly journals, such as the American Historical Review and the Journal of Modern History, as well as in media publications including the New York Times, the Washington Post, and The Nation. Whats the big idea? There is such a thing as too many options. Nowhere is freedom-as-choice and choice-as-freedom more evident than in the United States. As important as the right to choose has been in various emancipation movements, there is a point at which choice can become a trap that goes too far. Below, Sophia shares five key insights from her new book, The Age of Choice: A History of Freedom in Modern Life. Listen to the audio versionread by Sophia herselfin the Next Big Idea App. 1. Having choices makes us feel free. Have you recently picked somethinganything? Maybe a kind of sandwich, a political candidate, or a movie to watch from the comfort of your couch? Did you first consult a menu of options and decide which appealed to you? That answer is probably yes because this kind of choice-making is routine these days. I am also going to guess that the opportunity to make a choice was valuable to you, even if it didnt fully register at the time. When we make a menu-based choice, most of us experience it as a kind of freedom. At that moment, no one is telling us what to do, and we get what we want. Sometimes, we even feel we are defining ourselves in the process as distinctive people with distinctive tastes: vegetarians vs. meat eaters, fans of simple fare vs. foodies, etc. The same goes for choice-making about everything from ideas and beliefs to jobs, dates, or spouses. Choice is where political life, democracy, and consumer culture converge. This is constantly being reinforced in our way of talking. Constitutions produced around the globe ever since the Second World War reflect this. You could also look at billboards and see this, too. The right to choose has become enshrined in everything from bills of rights to advertisements. For most of us, having options and being able to act on them in keeping with our desires is what feeling free (nowadays) is all about. 2. People always have as many choicesand they probably didnt care. Exaltation of choice for choices sake, or choice as the key sign of autonomy, is relatively new. Just a few centuries ago, being at the top of the social scale meant not having to worry about what to own, where to live, whom to marry, what to believe, or who should rule. These questions were, ideally, already settled, sometimes from birth. You can probably imagine how this must have been a sort of privilege, as it meant a life without constant hustling. Choice didnt have the special status it has today for men or, especially, women. Freedom was imagined differently. In the era of slavery and more rigid class structures, it had more to do with living without being dominated by someone else and with doing, of ones own volition, what was right rather than wrong. We might say that the emergence of individualized and largely value-neutral choice as a stand-in for freedom is really the story of the development of modern life around much of the globe. It is the story of how we learned to shop, read selectively, choose a place of worship, pick dance partners and then life partners, vote in elections, and participate in the invention of whole fields of studylike psychology or economicsthat explore how or why or when we make the choices we do. We tend to see our attachment to choice as natural, maybe even biological, rather than something particular to our historical moment. This story of how choice became the modern form of freedom has never been fully told or even recognized. Thats because we tend to see our attachment to choice as natural, maybe even biological, rather than something particular to our historical moment. However, once we see that we live uniquely in an age of choice as a result of historical factors, we also start to notice the many consequences of this development on how we live today. 3. Freedom of choice requires a lot of (largely invisible) rules. As choices have grown across all kinds of sectors, from romance to politics to decorating your house, they have required new technologies to make them work. Think of catalogues, sample books, ballots, surveys, and all their internet counterparts, which require a display of all the available possibilities along with ways to register ones selections. The steady proliferation in both choice-making situations and choices themselves has demanded the invention of ever more rules about who can choose what and when and how. Selecting a sandwich off a menu posted behind a lunch counter paradoxically requires all kinds of largely invisible regulations that have also grown with time, from rules about the safety of the products one is picking amongst, to rules about what happens to the money you hand over in exchange for your turkey club, to rules about how to line up to register ones choice in the first place. So-called free markets only work when laws of various kindsthemselves designed by a host of choice architects, in the lingo of behavioral economistsemerge to help make the whole business run smoothly. This kind of freedom to do or select what matches ones preferences is generally only available in our hours not on the job, or so-called free time. It is also always restricted to some people rather than others: people with money, people of a certain age, people who are citizens or residents, people of one sex rather than the other. Choice is always a limited form of freedom insofar as it requires other constraints, formal and informal, to be operable. 4. Choice can be a trap with negative repercussions. Most of us, rightly, dont want to relinquish any of our existing freedom to choose. There is good reason why having choices is associated with human rights protections and global happiness indexes. It is hard for most Americans to imagine the benefits of arranged marriages, or a political system without secret, individualized voting, or a world of provisioning rather than supermarkets, even though these are relatively recent developments in the broad sweep of history. But, then again, we rarely stop to look at the downsides of our reliance on and faith in choice. Humans are limited in our ability to make good choices, as psychologists often tell us, because we fail to really know our own minds. We are also made anxious by having too many choices since we cant predict their outcomes and know we are likely to wonder if we picked wrong afterward. Who cant relate to that feeling of slight panic and sometimes paralysis at the very 21st-century scenario of being confronted with too many options and too little guidance about how to discriminate among them, whether in real life or online? Choice is always a limited form of freedom insofar as it requires other constraints, formal and informal, to be operable. All this stress on individual choice means we often end up blaming peopleespecially disadvantaged people who face few or only bad choicesfor outcomes that might not be entirely their fault. Is it really a bad choice, suggestive of criminality, to try crossing a border illegally if one is stuck in a war-torn nation with no other possibilities for moving elsewhere? We get so caught up in considering our own options for fulfillment that we become incapable of considering how to achieve something in our collective interest, like clean air, water, or a solution to the refugee problem. In such cases, having more choices doesnt enhance our freedom and well-being on an individual or societal level. And for all its global appeal, not least under the guise of feminism, commitment to choice has also become a potent source of resentment in places and subcultures that do not accept that this central capitalist-democratic value should be a goal unto itself or that feel left out of its operation. Thats one reason political fights often revolve around the question of what choices should be available to whom, especially when it comes to women and their reproductive lives. 5. Knowing when to advocate for enhanced choices, and when not, could benefit us. This isnt a brief for getting rid of choice, but we should be more attentive to when choice meets our needs and when it doesnt or wont. For example, we might find scenarios where we want fewer rather than more choices as consumers. Who wouldnt prefer a single good-quality, mandated health insurance plan over picking between nine different market options, all with different contingency plans, which we have no way of foreseeing if they will match our future needs? As voters, we might want to take some options off the table entirely. I can imagine deciding we want to live in a world that doesnt offer civilians the option of buying certain kinds of military-grade weapons, just as we prohibit the option of buying children or bodily organs or dangerous drugs or driving without passing a special test. We might even decide there are some scenarios in which we need to limit the choices of some people to increase the choices of others. Looking to history helps us see how choice came to occupy the importance and high status it has today. We can trace its development from the first want ads for spouses in the 18th century to Tinder today. History also shows where and how we risk going overboard, especially in the United States, where freedom-as-choice and choice-as-freedom are most evident. This inquiry is equally vital for ordinary people, business leaders, and policymakers. Thats especially true at this moment, when artificial intelligence is being developed to grow our choices further and also to tailor those choices to individualsthus shaping and constraining which options we pick. We need to remain aware that the promise of choice has been critical to many emancipation movements, from abolitionism to feminism, and has given people new possibilities for how to live. Still, it is time we got past the idea that choice is either cost-free or always the solution, never the problem. Think about this fact next time you find yourself in front of any kind of menu. This article originally appeared in the Next Big Idea Club magazine and is reprinted with permission.
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Clearly, automation will affect labor in 2025. But we maintain that when implemented well, automation elevates our employees and empowers our American workers to make U.S. businesses more competitive on the global stage.This is our why. Now Chang Robotics president, Kate McAfoose, will address the how. These are remarks she shared at a recent Delaware Valley Goods Movement Task Force quarterly meeting panel. New automation brings new challenges Yes, new challenges emerge with increased automation and digitalization. As an engineering firm, our company is coming from an engineering culture into companies ranging from manufacturing to warehousing, transportation, e-commerce, healthcare, and government spaces. Many are Fortune 500; some are smaller, but the challenges they face are the same: They want to maintain staffing from within their regions, but they must be sure theyre meeting quality requirements and regulatory benchmarks. They want to build a resilient supply chain within the U.S. So how do they transition manual workers to jobs informed by digital technologies? Smart technologies and asking the right questions As part of our robotic solutions, we integrate smart sensors, internet of technology (IoT) platforms, data collection, and analysis. We also provide C-suites with a dashboard to track key metrics, and identify areas where performance may be lacking. The dashboard answers questions such as Are we maintaining uptime? Are we meeting production requirements? Are the quality measurements in line? Perhaps the client needs to improve operational efficiency to maintain profitability. In healthcare, nursing staff may be burned out due to a shortage, leading to physical exhaustion or extended shifts. Or a government facility might be readyor requiredto transition to autonomous shuttles. In all cases, the process involves finding the repetitive tasks that are not necessarily high skilled, then finding ways to automate those functions. Now the challenge is to upskill the staff and operators to new trades as were implementing the systems. Training the trainers is key Our company has a philosophy called train the trainer. As we implement new technology, we walk side by side with the operators for roughly 3-6 months. We make sure they understand and can operate the system; then we help them champion the system. In addition to the new level of employment, they earn the metaphorical badge of honor for having learned a new trade. We focus on empowering employees who can go home and say, My job is cool. I get to work with robots. Its not a situation of humans being replaced by robots, but in positioning them with collaborative robots that can drive efficiency and quality but cannot function without human interaction. If we implement the change in this way, everyone wins. A new world, with room for many How many people go through high school thinking, I want to specialize in goods movement or I want to work in automated transport? This is not a career path people have considered as a cool future role. But as these functions become better understood, the respect for their power will grow. There will still be a range of skilled and lower-skilled positions in the automated workforce. More positions will naturally focus on the maintenance and planning of the automated facilities. People will be required to perform maintenance and testing functions and to plan and maintain the spare parts inventory. These roles are vital to the operations success and will naturally gain a much bigger seat at the organizational table. Automation also applies to quality control. For example, if youre automating plasticware production, the utensils must come off the line cleanly, with no excess edges. The moment one piece fails to meet quality standards, it can cause a backup in the entire line, leading to a shutdown and requiring manual labor to resolve the issue. If youre operating with a smaller staff, youll need to pull workers from other areas, further slowing down production. Everyone involved will continually learn and adapt. Jobs remain, but skillsets are shifting It’s critical to avoid the assumption that automation leads to job reduction. Its a drive for as much production and quality enhancement as possible, but it will require a specialized team to achieve. Ideally, its the same team you already have, but differently trained. Traditionally, manual warehouse labor roles have very high turnover. After 6 months, many workers feel the job is repetitive and unappealing, or they leave to avoid night shifts or seek higher pay elsewhere. When this happens, the training investment is lost, and the next employee must be trained. However, when automation is implemented effectively, the need for manual labor decreases. Ideally, this reduction can occur through natural attritionwhen an employee moves on rather than advancing, the company may not need to hire a replacement. Automation can streamline roles that involve heavy lifting, high workplace injury risk, and increased burnout or boredom. People will leave less often. Effective automation can reward companies and workers in new ways. Technology for a bright future What does this mean for our childrens future? Kate has a child in kindergarten right now. I have no idea what she will do. Maybe shell pursue data science or data analysis, but the truth is, the roles of the future most likely dont even exist yet. But they will be necessary. And so will she. We will continually need to strive for the right decisions and balance, with a focus on innovation and action. This is how the next generation of companiesand employeescan continue to win. Matthew Chang is founder and Kate McAfoose is president of Chang Robotics.
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The Fast Company Impact Council is a private membership community of influential leaders, experts, executives, and entrepreneurs who share their insights with our audience. Members pay annual membership dues for access to peer learning and thought leadership opportunities, events and more. Sterile, isolating, and stressful: Todays hospitals can kindle deep discomfort. Because they must be designed adequately for everyone, theyre designed perfectly for no one. So, what would our healthcare experience look like if physical hospitals were to disappear altogether? Artificial intelligence that is generative, predictive, and integrated, combined with the power of edge computing in every background device, will transform our very notion of hospitals. Healthcare will become a lifestyle so seamlessly woven into our daily experience that it will be invisible. Why is this the future of healthcare? The trends are already apparent: Evolving economics: As baby boomers transition to Medicare, millennials, Gen X and Gen Z are emerging as the primary healthcare consumers. These groups place an emphasis on convenience and personalization, and this social shift is influencing how we access care. Modern living: Biometric data collection is being increasingly integrated into our homes and daily routines, and predictive AI is streamlining diagnostics and preventing diseases. Converging technologies: Healthcare delivery has traditionally required specialized devices for every test and procedure, but the limitations of cost and size are fading. Advances in computation will converge functionalities, revolutionizing the patient experience in the process. Strategies for success In light of these trends, my firm has recently explored strategies for success in a changing healthcare landscape. They reflect our belief in a gradual transition toward decentralized healthcare and the integration of AI technology, celebrating our gradual societal progression towards an improved future, rather than a utopia that appears overnight. Here are some of these strategies. Lean into wearable technology. Soon, health data will be paired with pattern-recognition AI to identify and predict all risk factors for disease. This is a future inflection point where almost all healthcare becomes preventative medicine. For example, instead of learning about our heart disease after a cardiac event, AI will accurately warn us of our impending heart attack decades before it happens. Treat mental health as a community endeavor. The human body emits numerous indicators of psychological stress: elevated heart rate, tense muscles, and insomniawhich can be read by advanced biometric devices like an open book to our minds. Combined with large language model and diffusion model AI, a radical change in behavioral health could be at our fingertips. With AI-driven behavioral medicine available anywhere, anytime, communities could invest in public infrastructurelike augmenting parks to combine mental health with public green spaceto increase accessibility and fight social stigma. Repurpose obsolete infrastructure: By 2051, gas stations may be obsolete, and diagnostic equipment that is expensive today will be cheaper, smaller, and more powerful. Repurposing existing gas stationsand other outdated infrastructureinto neighborhood health stations could efficiently disperse essential health services throughout communities. Create personalized care environments: Unbound by location, cost and data availability, we can enjoy more personalized healthcare. For example, combining a labor and delivery room with augmented reality will make birth more comfortable by bridging the personal environment of a home birth with the medical sophistication of a specialty clinic. Floor-to-ceiling digital screens that respond to cortisol levels to create a calming atmosphere while displaying critical health information would have positive health impacts and improve patient satisfaction. Integrate diagnostic screening into the home: Households will become data collection centers and bathrooms can become labs of the future by integrating AI into existing buildings. For example, imagine household appliances that track the type of food you keep on hand as a marker of your overall health or screen your biowaste for signs of sickness in real time. Your own digital health avatar will be updated every time you cook a meal or brush your teeth. Today, a visit to the hospital entails finding a place to park in a busy lot, picking the right door to enter, and winding your way through confusing corridors past services you dont need, and ride elevators with people who cough without covering their mouths. Designers and architects have an opportunity to design a better way of doing things. Its a safe bet the future of healthcare will be a messy evolution of technology, culture, and economy. Markets are demanding more personalized on-demand service, technology is getting smaller and cheaper every day, and AI continues to advance. As designers, we believe this leaves us free to envision healthcare first and foremost as experiences rather than buildings or places. By embracing solutions that are opportunistic and incremental, we can create a future where healthcare is invisible and omnipresent. As we move into a future where technology will diminish the constraining power of location, cost and data, designers must resolve to increase our commitment to human flourishing. We must work together to deliver healthcare that delights. Mike Sewell is director of innovation at Gresham Smith.
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