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I recently helped my mom sort through boxes she inherited when my grandparents passed away. One box was labeled either ironically or genuinely toothpick holders and other treasures. Inside were many keepsakes from moments now lost to history although we found no toothpick holders. My favorite of the items we sorted through was a solitary puzzle piece, an artifact reflecting my late grandmothers penchant for hiding the final piece to a jigsaw puzzle just to swoop in at the last moment and finish it. After several hours of reminiscing, my mom and I threw away 90% of what we had sorted. Why did I keep this? is a question I hear frequently, both from my family and friends and from patients. I am a licensed clinical psychologist whose research focuses on the characterization, assessment and treatment of hoarding disorder, particularly for adults 60 years of age or older. As such, I spend a great deal of my time thinking about this question. What drives the need to keep stuff? Hoarding disorder is a psychiatric condition defined by urges to save items and difficulty discarding current possessions. For adults with clinically severe hoarding disorder, this leads to a level of household clutter that impairs daily functioning and can even create a fire hazard. In my professional experience, however, many adults struggle with clutter even if they do not meet the clinical criteria for hoarding disorder. Holding on to things that have sentimental value or could be useful in the future is a natural part of growing older. For some people, though, this tendency to hold on to objects grows over time, to the point that they eventually do meet criteria for hoarding disorder. Age-related changes in executive function may help explain the increase in prevalence of hoarding disorder as we get older; increasing difficulty with decision-making in general also affects decisions around household clutter. The traditional model behind hoarding disorder suggests that difficulty with discarding comes from distress during decision-making. However, my research shows that this may be less true of older adults. When I was a graduate student, I conducted a study in which we asked adults with hoarding disorder to spend 15 minutes making decisions about whether to keep or discard various items brought from their home. Participants could sort whatever items they wanted. Most chose to sort paper items such as old mail, cards or notes. We found that age was associated with lower levels of distress during the task, such that participants who were older tended to feel less stressed when making the decision about what to keep and what to discard. We also found that many participants, particularly those who were older, actually reported positive emotions while sorting their items. In new research publishing soon, my current team replicated this finding using a home-based version of the task. This suggests that fear of making the wrong decision isnt a universal driver of our urge to save items. In fact, a study my team published in August 2024 with adults over 50 with hoarding disorder suggests that altruism, a personality trait of wanting to help others, may explain why some people keep items that others might discard. My colleagues and I compared our participants personality profiles with that of adults in the general population of the same gender and age group. Compared with the general population, participants with hoarding disorder scored almost universally high on altruism. Altruism also comes up frequently in my clinical work with older adults who struggle with clutter. People in our studies often tell me that they have held onto something out of a sense of responsibility, either for the item itself or to the environment. I need it to go to a good home and my grandmother gave this to me are sentiments we commonly hear. Thus, people may keep things not out of fear of losing them but because saving them is consistent with their values. Leaning into values In a 2024 study, my team demonstrated that taking a values-based approach to decluttering helps older adults to decrease household clutter and increases their positive affect, a state of mind characterized by feelings such as joy and contentment. Clinicians visited the homes of older adults with hoarding disorder for one hour per week for six weeks. At each visit, the clinicians used a technique called motivational interviewing to help participants talk through their decisions while they sorted household clutter. We found that having participants start with identifying their values allowed them to maintain focus on their long-term goals. Too often, people focus on the immediate ability of an object to spark joy and forget to consider whether an object has greater meaning and purpose. Values are the abstract beliefs that we humans use to create our goals. Values are whatever drives us and can include family, faith or frivolity. Because values are subjective, what people identify as important to keep is also subjective. For example, the dress I wore to my sisters wedding reminded me of a wonderful day. However, when it no longer fit I gave it away because doing so was more consistent with my values of utility and helpfulness: I wanted the dress to go to someone who needed it and would use it. Someone who more strongly valued family and beauty might have prioritized keeping the dress because of the aesthetics and its link to a family event. Additionally, we found that instead of challenging the reasons a person might have for keeping an item, it is helpful to instead focus on eliciting their reasons for discarding it and the goals they have for their home and their life. Tips for sweeping away the old My research on using motivational interviewing for decluttering and my observations from a current clinical trial on the approach point to some practical steps people can take to declutter their home. Although my work has been primarily with older adults, these tips should be helpful for people of all ages. Start with writing out your values. Every object in your home should feel value-consistent for you. For example, if tradition and faith are important values for you, you might be more inclined to hold onto a cookbook that was made by the elders at your church and more able to let go of a cookbook you picked up on a whim at a bookstore.
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Do artists and scientists see the same thing in the shape of trees? As a scientist who studies branching patterns in living things, Im starting to think so. Piet Mondrian was an early 20th-century abstract artist and art theorist obsessed with simplicity and essence of form. Even people who have never heard of Mondrian will likely recognize his iconic irregular grids of rectangles. Tableau I by Piet Mondrian, 1921. [Image: Kunstmuseum Den Haag] When I saw Mondrians 1911 Gray Tree, I immediately recognized something about trees that I had struggled to describe. By removing all but the most essential elements in an abstract painting, Mondrian demonstrated something I was attempting to explain using physics and fractal geometry. My field of research is mathematical biology. My colleagues and I try to explain how treelike structures such as veins and arteries, lungs and leaves fine-tune their physical form to efficiently deliver blood, air, water and nutrients. Grey Tree by Piet Mondrian, 1911. [Image: Kunstmuseum Den Haag] Fundamental research in the biology of branching helps cure cardiovascular diseases and cancer, design materials that can heal themselves and predict how trees will respond to a changing climate. Branching also shows up in ant foraging patterns, slime molds and cities. The treeless tree From 1890 to 1912, Mondrian painted dozens of trees. He started with full-color, realistic trees in context: trees in a farmyard or a dappled lane. Gradually he removed leaves, depth, color and eventually even branching from his tree paintings. Gray Tree uses only curved lines of various thickness superimposed on top of one another at seemingly random angles. Yet the image is unmistakably a tree. Polder Landscape with Silhouetted Young Tree by Piet Mondrian, 1900-1901. [Image: Wikimedia Commons] How did Mondrian convey the sense of a tree with so little? The science of trees may offer some clues. The science of branching One goal of mathematical biology is to synthesize what scientists know about the vast diversity of living systems where there seems to be an exception to every rule into clear, general principles, ideally with few exceptions. One such general principle is that evolution fine-tunes treelike structures in living things to make metabolism and respiration as efficient as possible. The body carefully controls the thickness of vessels as they branch, because deviation from the most efficient diameter wastes energy and causes disease, such as atherosclerosis. In many cases, such as human blood vessels, the body exerts much tighter control over diameter than length. So while veins and arteries might take circuitous routes to accommodate the vagaries of organs and anatomy, their diameter usually stays within 10% of the optimum. The same principle appears in tree branches as well. The precise calibration of branch diameter leads to a hallmark of fractal shapes called scale invariance. A scale invariance is a property that holds true regardless of the size of an object or part of an object youre looking at. Scale invariance occurs in trees because trunks, limbs and twigs all branch in similar ways and for similar reasons. Trees with different values of the scaling parameter . [Image: Gao and Newberry/PNAS Nexus] The scale invariance in branch diameter dictates how much smaller a limb should be as it branches and how much investment a tree makes in a few thick branches versus many thin ones. Trees have evolved scale invariance to transport water, reach light and resist gravity and wind load as efficiently as possible given physical limits. This science of trees inspired my colleague and me to measure the scaling of tree branch diameter in art. The art of trees Among my favorite images is a carving of a tree from a late-medieval mosque in India. Its exaltation of trees reminds me of Tolkiens Tree of Gondor and the human capacity to appreciate the simple beauty of living things. Siddi Saiyyed Mosque in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, carved ca. 1572. [Photo: Snehrashmi/Wiki Commons] But I also find mathematical inspiration in the Islamic Golden Age, a time when art, architecture, math and physics thrived. Medieval Islamic architects even decorated buildings with infinitely nonrepeating tiling patterns that were not understood by Western mathematics until the 20th century. The stylized tree carvings of the Sidi Saiyyed mosque also follow the precise system of proportions dictated by the scale invariance of real trees. This level of precision of branch diameter takes an attentive eye and a careful plan much better than I could freehand. Cherry Blossoms by Matsumura Goshun (17521811). [Image: Metropolitan Museum of Art] Indeed, wherever our team looked at trees in great artwork, such as Klimts Tree of Life or Matsumura Goshuns Cherry Blossoms, we also found precise scale invariance in the diameter of branches. Grey Tree also realistically captures the natural variation in branch diameters, even when the painting gives the viewer little else to go on. Without realistic scaling, would this painting even be a tree? As if to prove the point, Mondrian made a subsequent painting the following year, also with a gray background, curved lines and the same overall composition and dimensions. Even the position of some of the lines are the same. But, in Blooming Apple Tree (1912), all the lines are the same thickness. The scaling is gone, and with it, the tree. Before reading the title, most viewers would not guess that this is a painting of a tree. Yet Mondrians sketches reveal that Blooming Apple Tree and Gray Tree are the very same tree. Blooming Apple Tree by Piet Mondrian, 1912. [Image: Kunstmuseum Den Haag] The two paintings contain few elements that might signal a tree a concentration of lines near the center, lines that could be branches or a central trunk and lines that could indicate the ground or a horizon. Yet only Gray Tree has scale-invariant branch diameters. When Mondrian removes the scale invariance in Blooming Apple Tree, viewers just as easily see fish, scales, dancers, water or simply nonrepresentational shapes, whereas the tree in Gray Tree is unmistakable. Photo synthesis Mondrians tree paintings and scientific theory highlight the importance of the thickness of tree branches. Consilience is when different lines of evidence and reasoning reach the same conclusions. Art and math both explore abstract descriptions of the world, and so seeing great art and science pick out the same essential features of trees is satisfying beyond what art or science could accomplish alone. Just as great literature such as The Overstory and The Botany of Desire show us how treesinfluence our lives in ways we often dont notice, the art and science of trees show how humans are finely attuned to whats important to trees. I think this resonance is one reason people find fractals and natural landscapes so pleasing and reassuring. All these lines of thinking give us new ways to appreciate trees. Mitchell Newberry is a research assistant professor of biology at the University of New Mexico. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
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The German antitrust authority has charged Apple with abusing its market power through its app tracking tool and giving itself preferential treatment in a move that could result in daily fines for the iPhone maker if it fails to change its business practices. The move follows a three-year investigation by the Federal Cartel Office into Apple’s App Tracking Transparency feature, which allows users to block advertisers from tracking them across different applications. The U.S. tech giant has said the feature allows users to control their privacy but has drawn criticism from Meta Platforms, app developers and startups whose business models rely on advertising tracking. “The ATTF (app tracking tool) makes it far more difficult for competing app publishers to access the user data relevant for advertising,” Andreas Mundt, cartel office president, said in a statement. Apple defended the feature in an emailed statement to Reuters, adding that it “holds itself to a higher standard than it requires of any third-party developer.” “We will continue to constructively engage with the Federal Cartel Office to ensure users continue to have transparency and control over their data,” it added. Apple will be required to address the concerns set out in the German charge sheet or risk further proceedings and daily fines if it fails to do so by the time of a final ruling which could come this year but is more likely to land next year. The case was triggered by complaints from associations representing publishers, broadcasters, advertisers, their agencies and ad tech firms. “Today’s charges are groundbreaking. Apple’s measures had created an artificial opacity in its ecosystem that led to less choice, higher costs for apps, and less protection against ad fraud, all while boosting Apple’s revenues from services,” said Thomas Höppner, partner at law firm Hausfeld, which represents the complainants. “For the first time it has been clarified that Apple may not rely on pretextual privacy arguments to massively restrict competition in its favor,” he said. Companies found guilty of breaching Germany’s antitrust rules risk fines as much as 10% of their annual turnover. Rachel More and Foo Yun Chee, Reuters
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